By Lyne Desforges, Holistic Nutritionist & Culinary Expert

Making Sea Moss Gel

I love when my kitchen becomes a nutrition lab as I experiment with new foods, new ingredients, and new recipes. I had heard about adding Sea Moss (also know as Irish Moss or red algae) to homemade nut milk as a natural thickener so I finally ordered some and learned how to work with it.

After doing some research, I also found out that sea moss has many health benefits, especially as a soothing and healing treatment for any mucous membrane in the body, especially the gut. What a bonus!

Here are 5 simple and easy steps to make sea moss gel.

Step 1: Rinse Well

Remove from the packaging and place in a colander. Rinse under cold water to get any excess salt or debris out. 

Step 2 – Soak In Water

Take a large bowl, add the sea moss and cover in lots of pure filtered water. Note that the sea moss will expand so you may need to add more water. You can add the juice from half a lime to the water. It will help take away the fishy taste and smell. Let soak overnight. 

Step 3-Rinse Again

Drain the sea moss in a large colander and rinse again under cold water. Swish it around until everything has been evenly rinsed. You will notice that the colour may have whitened a bit after the soaking. That is totally fine.

Step 4 – Boil Gently (optional)

Take out a large saucepan and add a bit of pure filtered water to the pan. Bring to a gentle boil. Add the sea moss and reduce the heat to just below boiling. There should be enough water in the pan to just cover the sea moss but not drown it completely. Heat gently on medium-low for 20-25 minutes. You can add more lime or lemon juice to the pot again. You can even add the juiced-out lime halves (as shown in the photo). The sea moss will start to really soften and thicken. It is almost completely white at this point.

Note: You can omit this step and just blend the raw soaked sea moss with pure filtered water in your blender. Using a ratio of 2 cups water to 1 cup of sea moss should work.

Step 5 – Blend It

Turn off the heat. Let cool a few minutes. Pour the whole contents of your saucepan in your blender. Start blending on medium-high speed. It should form a thick homogenous liquid. Pour into clean Mason jars and let cool. Then add the lids and refrigerate until ready to use.

Use It in Homemade Nut Milk

Once cooled completely, you should have a nice thick gel that you can add to your homemade nut milks, smoothies, soups, stews, drinks, or even personal care products. More recipes to come as I experiment with this new ingredient.

By Lyne Desforges, Holistic Nutritionist & Culinary Expert

Sea Moss: A Superfood?

I love experimenting in the kitchen and trying out new foods. After reading about how sea moss is a great thickener for homemade nut milk, I decided to order some and give it a try. I also wanted to see if all the hype about the health benefits were true.

What is it?

Sea moss is actually not a moss but an algae. It is also known as Irish moss, red algae, carrageen, or under its latin name Chondrus Crispus.  It is a sea vegetable that is used in many parts of the world as a thickening agent for non-dairy milks, soups, smoothies, stews, and even skin and hair products. (5)

Sourcing it

Sea moss is found in abundance in the Carribean, as well as the North Atlantic Ocean area. Finding a clean source is important as many can contain toxic minerals such as mercury. St. Lucia seems the be one of the cleanest sources and that’s where mine came from. (1)

Is it healthy?

Like most sea vegetables, sea moss is rich in various minerals (calcium, zinc, selenium, potassium, etc.), A&B vitamins, iodine and antioxidants. According to the packaging label on my sea moss, it has incredible health benefits that cover pretty much every major system in the body (see photo).

Studies on the health benefits of sea moss are very limited so these claims may stem from general observations, correlations, and traditional uses over many centuries. The studies that have been done on algae were in vitro or on lab animals and they show some some evidence of the beneficial effects of sea vegetables and their components. (4)

Thyroid Health

There are two main thyroid hormones that are produced naturally in our body: tri-iodothyronine (T3) and thyroxin (T4), both of which are also found in abundance in the sea moss. Therefore, sea moss and sea vegetables are often used as a treatment for thyroid disorders. (10, 12) Because sea vegetables also contain good amounts of iodine and selenium, they help with the metabolism of thyroid hormones. Since the thyroid regulates all metabolic activities in the body, it is important to keep it healthy.

Natural Detoxifier & Cancer Fighter

Sea moss contains algin, a compound that could have a detoxifying effect because it may decrease the amount of certain heavy chemicals in the body. (2)

Another interesting study compared the effectiveness of tamoxifen (a breast cancer drug) versus an edible red algae extract in rat animals. Their findings were impressive, showing that the algae was 27% more effective than the conventional drug. There is definitely more research needed in this area but the early findings are very promising. (9, 11)

Digestive Health

As soon as you start working with sea moss (soaking it, heating it gently), you notice its mucilaginous texture (slimy texture). This means that ingesting it will have a very healing and soothing effect for any internal mucous membrane such as the whole digestive tract and external membrane such as skin and hair. (10, 13)

It also provides great prebiotic fibre to the gut, helping to nourish the good bacteria so that we can maintain good gut health and balance. (8)

Nourishment for the skin

Sea moss contains citrulline-arginine, amino acids that are important sources of nitrogen and are essential for protein and collagen synthesis. It can help protect the skin against harsh environments, and prevent and improve skin aging. (5)

Respiratory and Immune Health

Because it is so soothing and nourishing for all mucous membranes, sea moss has been used traditionally to relieve, treat or prevent any respiratory ailments such as coughs, colds, congestion, bronchitis, sore throats, etc. (6)

Certain components of sea moss have antiviral and antimicrobial properties that actually enhance the immune response in the body reducing the chances of infections. (7)

Is Carrageenan Bad?

There has been a lot of talk recently about the negative health effects of carrageenan on humans, especially cancer-causing effects. It should be noted that studies have been on lab animals and using degraded carrageenan (the kind often used in processed foods). There were no negative effects observed when using undegraded carrageenan. (3, 13) Carrageenan is one of the components that is found in sea moss. When working with the whole sea moss, I used the whole plant, not just one component. Eating the whole food is always a better option when it comes to nutrients in their most bioavailable form.

The Learning Kitchen

Sea moss is definitely an interesting food with many potential health benefits. It has been used traditionally in so many cultures all over the world to treat and heal various conditions. More research needs to be done but some of the preliminary studies are very promising. For my part, I am happy to learn more about it and add it to various recipes as I continue to experiment and discover new products in my learning kitchen.

References:

1. “4oz.16.Oz St. Lucia Seamoss 100% Dried Raw Natural.” Etsy, etsy.com/ca/listing/634248837/4oz-16oz-st-lucia-seamoss-100-dried-raw.
2. “Algin: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Dosage, and Warning.” WebMD, WebMD, webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-275/algin.
3. Ariffin, Shahrul Hisham Zainal, et al. “Cytotoxicity Effect of Degraded and Undegraded Kappa and Iota Carrageenan in Human Intestine and Liver Cell Lines.” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, BioMed Central, 17 Dec. 2014, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4320596/.
4. Brown, Emma M, et al. “Seaweed and Human Health.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 Mar. 2014, oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/72/3/205/1853561.
5. Chondrus Crispus. sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chondrus-crispus.
6. “Irish Moss-Chondrus Crispus.” Health Benefits, healthbenefitstimes.com/irish-moss/.
7. Liu, Jinghua, et al. “Components of the Cultivated Red Seaweed Chondrus Crispus Enhance the Immune Response of Caenorhabditis Elegans to Pseudomonas Aeruginosa through the Pmk-1, Daf-2/Daf-16, and Skn-1 Pathways.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, American Society for Microbiology, Dec. 2013, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3837755/.
8. Liu, Jinghua, et al. “Prebiotic Effects of Diet Supplemented with the Cultivated Red Seaweed Chondrus Crispus or with Fructo-Oligo-Saccharide on Host Immunity, Colonic Microbiota and Gut Microbial Metabolites.” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, BioMed Central, 14 Aug. 2015, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4535385/.
9. “Seaweed Outperforms Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer.” NaturalHealth365, 26 Oct. 2017, naturalhealth365.com/seaweed-breast-cancer-2328.html.
10. “Irish Sea Moss: Benefits, Uses and Products: ScienceFlora.” Science Flora, 6 Apr. 2020, scienceflora.org/irish-sea-moss/.
11. Shamsabadi FT;Khoddami A;Fard SG;Abdullah R;Othman HH;Mohamed S; “Comparison of Tamoxifen with Edible Seaweed (Eucheuma Cottonii L.) Extract in Suppressing Breast Tumor.” Nutrition and Cancer, U.S. National Library of Medicine, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23441613/.
12. Teas J;Braverman LE;Kurzer MS;Pino S;Hurley TG;Hebert JR; “Seaweed and Soy: Companion Foods in Asian Cuisine and Their Effects on Thyroid Function in American Women.” Journal of Medicinal Food, U.S. National Library of Medicine, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17472472/.
13. Telpner, Meghan. “Sea Moss! Where Have You Been All My Life?” Meghan Telpner, 25 Jan. 2019, meghantelpner.com/blog/sea-moss-and-irish-moss-everything-you-need-to-know/.

By Dr. Sofie Desforges-Bell, Naturopathic Doctor

Seasonal Allergies (aka Hay Fever, Allergic Rhinitis)

It’s that time of year again!

Due to the current global pandemic, we have been spending a lot of time indoors. However, this is about to shift dramatically as the temperature warms up and the sun starts to shine that much brighter. Unfortunately, for some of us, that means lots of sneezing, congestion, and itching. Yes, seasonal allergies are here!

Common allergy triggers include pollen (from grasses, trees, weeds), dust mites, molds, and pets. These allergens cause an inflammatory process in the body of those who have been sensitized, releasing mediators such as histamine. This causes vasodilation of certain tissues, especially in the respiratory tract, hence the sneezing, coughing, and general congestion.

From lifestyle and dietary modifications to supplements and botanicals, naturopathic medicine provides many tools as an alternative to over-the-counter histamines. There are many health strategies you can implement to help prevent and reduce your seasonal allergy symptoms.

Identify Your Allergens

If you suspect you have allergies, I recommend you consult with your healthcare practitioner and get a referral to an allergist if need be. Getting IgE allergy testing is important to identify your allergens so you can avoid and/or remove them from your environment, as much as possible.

Some people suspect that they suffer from seasonal allergies, when in fact they may have food sensitivities. Food sensitivities are a delayed onset reaction mediated by the IgG part of the immune system versus the IgE involved in your typical hay fever picture. Having food sensitivities does also predispose you to leaky gut and increases the overall inflammation in your body. You can find out more about your own food sensitivities by doing an elimination diet or a Food Sensitivity Test.

Another important thing to rule out is histamine intolerance/overload. Some people tend to have a higher body burden of histamine either from medications, gastrointestinal issues or consuming lots of high histamine foods. If you fall in this category, you may not suffer from overt allergies, but allergens in the environment may further trigger a histamine reaction in your body leading to very similar symptoms. If we compare your body to a bucket that is already filled with water, that extra drop might just be the tipping point that causes the water to overflow. The same goes for the histamine in your body. Allergens in the environment or in your food, might just be that extra drop in the bucket that your body cannot dispose of, and cue the allergic symptoms.

The point is that you must get to the root cause of your disease in order to treat your condition appropriately and effectively and avoid merely managing symptoms with band-aid solutions such as over-the-counter anti-histamines.

Lifestyle Modifications

Once you have identified your known allergens, the best thing you can do is to avoid them and remove them from your environment, as much as possible. In certain cases, it is impossible to avoid them completely (i.e. pollen) as you are at the mercy of Mother Nature. 

There are still a few strategies you can implement that may help manage your allergic symptoms.

1. Air purifier with HEPA filter
2. Dehumidifier for dust mites and fungus
3. Washing your clothes in hot water to destroy allergens
4. Nasal irrigation: Research shows that using nasal irrigation daily can help to improve symptoms such as sneezing and itching and reduce the need for nasal corticosteroids or improve their efficacy when used in conjunction. (Hermelingmeier KE, 2012)

Nutrition 

When it comes to nutrition, there is no perfect diet for everyone. It is always individualized. However, as always, it is important to eat a well-balanced diet of whole foods with lots of variety. There are still a few tricks you can try to implement if your seasonal allergies are getting the best of you.

1. Low-histamine diet: Even if you aren’t a person that has histamine intolerance, you may still benefit from avoiding certain foods that are high in histamine during this time of year to minimize your symptoms. It is hard to navigate through all the information on Internet relating to histamine. Fortunately, our Registered Holisitc Nutritionist Lyne, has compiled the information in her blog “Histamine in Foods“. You can also purchase our 4-week Low-Histamine Menu to get you started. Contact us for more information.
   
   
2. Increase omega-3/omega-6 ratio: Omega-3s and Omega-6s are both essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. We often focus on increasing our levels of omega-3 fatty acids, through food and supplementation, because these have a known anti-inflammatory effect. Omega-6s tend to be more pervasive in our food sources already, so we don’t need to focus so much on attaining our essential levels of these fatty acids. They also can become pro-inflammatory in excess, so the idea is to maintain the proper ratio of omega-3s to omega-6s. The overall goal is to reduce inflammation in the body because it can often contribute to many allergic symptoms such as swelling, itching, and runny noses. (Okamoto) Your best sources of Omega-3 foods are fish & seafood (especially cold-water fatty fish), and nuts & seeds (especially flaxseeds and walnuts).
   
   
3. Spirulina: this blue-green algae can be consumed as part of your diet or taken as a supplement. Spirulina naturally grows in salt water and in some fresh water lakes. It is a great source of minerals that is well ingested when taken orally. You do have to be wary of sourcing though as some natural sources may be contaminated. Research is starting to become more frequent with this algae for its benefits on the immune system, inflammation and infections. Although the evidence remains insufficient at this time, some preliminary research has shown that taking 2g of spirulina daily for 6 months has improved self-reported scores of sneezing, nasal discharge and congestion in adults with allergic rhinitis. (Cingi, 2008)

Botanicals*

Botanicals can be very effective and therapeutic in the treatment of many conditions and symptoms. They are great to help nudge the body in the direction of healing and offer more than one therapeutic action which aids to support various body systems.

1. Butterbur: Also known as Petasites hybridus, this shrub has some good evidence supporting its role in managing symptoms of hay fever, mostly nasal symptoms such as congestion. Interestingly, some research showed that a standardized extract of petasin (the active ingredient of the plant), might be just as effective as cetirizine (Zyrtec) or fexofenadine (Allegra), which are typical over-the-counter anti-histamines. (Schapowal, 2002) (Lee, 2004)
   
   
2. Nettle (Urtica dioica): I love recommending organic nettle tea as part of the allergy prevention protocol for patients around this time of year. In combination with vitamin C and quercetin (see below for more information on these nutrients), it can be quite effective. Nettle is a very hearty and nutritious plant that has some preliminary evidence supporting its use at the first sign of symptoms. It is very safe for most, other than pregnant patients and those who are breastfeeding, and is easy to add to your daily routine as you can sip on the tea continuously throughout the day. (Mittman, 1990)

Supplements*

Supplements can be a great addition to your seasonal allergy protocol and I love using the triad of nettle tea, vitamin C and quercetin as a natural prevention.

1. Vitamin C: As humans, we don’t make our own vitamin C like most other mammals, and therefore it is essential that we get it from our diet. We get a lot of it from fruits and vegetables, however for a more therapeutic effect supplementation is often necessary to achieve the higher dose and concentration required. Although most of the evidence for hay fever and vitamin C is insufficient, a few studies have shown promise. One in particular showed that a single dose of vitamin C of 2g reduces the airway response when exposed to histamine in the environment for about 40% of adults with allergic rhinitis. (Bucca, 1990)
   
   
2. Quercetin: Quercetin is a flavonoid that is naturally occurring in some foods such as onions, apples, and berries as well as in several herbs. Quercetin is thought to be a natural anti-histamine because of its ability to inhibit the release of histamine from mast cells in the body, a great alternative to over-the-counter products. (Otsuka, 1995) However more research is needed on its effect for the relief of allergic symptoms.  

Book A Visit

As you can see, naturopathic medicine offers many complimentary and alternative natural treatment options not only to treat allergic symptoms but also to prevent their onset at this time of year. If you would like to learn more what naturopathic medicine can do for you and your allergies, book in for a Free Naturopathic Meet & Greet (15-min). I am currently continuing to offer my services virtually for patients, by phone and video and we hope to reopen the clinic soon for those of you requiring in-person services.

* Please note that although botanicals and other supplements may be more natural than most pharmaceuticals, they nonetheless have very therapeutic effects and can interact with other supplements, herbs, and/or medications. Some botanicals may be unsafe to use with certain health conditions as well. Always consult your healthcare practitioner before starting, changing, or stopping any supplement or herbal product.

References

Bucca, C. R. (1990). Effect of vitamin C on histamine bronchial responsiveness of patients with allergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy, 65:311-4.

Cingi, C. C.-D. (2008). The effects of spirulina on allergic rhinitis. . Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol., 265(10):1219-23.

Hermelingmeier KE, W. R. (2012). Nasal irrigation as an adjunctive treatment in allergic rhinitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Rhinol Allergy, 26(5):e119-25.

Lee, D. G. (2004). A placebo-controlled evaluation of butterbur and fexofenadine on objective and subjective outcomes in perennial allergic rhinitis. Clin Exp Allergy, 34:646-9.

Mittman, P. (1990). Randomized, double-blind study of freeze-dried Urtica dioica in the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Planta Med., 56:44-7.

Okamoto, M. M. (n.d.). Effects of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids compared with n-6 fattys acids on bronchial asthma.

Otsuka, H. I. (1995). Histochemical and functional characteristics of metachromatic cells in the nasal epithelium in allergic rhinitis: studies of nasal scrapings and their dispersed cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 96:528-36.

Schapowal, A. (2002). Randomised controlled trial of butterbur and cetirizine for treating seasonal allergic rhinitis. BMJ, 324:144-6.

Schapowal, A. (2005). Treating intermittent allergic rhinitis: a prospective, randomized, placebo and antihistamine-controlled study of Butterbur extract Ze 339. Phytother Res, 19:530-37.

By Lyne Desforges, R.H.N.

Allergy season is here and you are wondering why your symptoms are worse this year? It could have nothing to do with the amount of pollen in the air and a lot more to do with what you are eating. Yes, histamine in food may be adding to your histamine load and your body cannot handle it. You may have become histamine intolerant (8).

What Is Histamine?

Histamine is a brain chemical (or neurotransmitter) that is released in the body, as part of the inflammatory response. (5) When we come in contact with an allergen, histamine is like the first responder of the immune system, working at getting rid of the foreign invader, whether it is a virus, bacteria, or an allergen. (6) 
Histamine is also essential for the regulation of stomach acid (12), the permeability of blood vessels, muscle contractions (8), brain function and neuropathic pain relief. (9)

What is Histamine Intolerance?

If there is too much histamine circulating in the body and the body cannot break it down quickly enough, then typical allergy symptoms start to appear: red or itchy eyes, hives, rashes, swelling, low or high blood pressure, heart racing, chest pain, nasal congestion, headaches, fatigue, irritability, digestive issues, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, anxiety. (8)

The role of Diamine Oxydase (DAO)

Diamine oxydase (DAO) is one of the enzymes responsible for the breakdown of histamine in the body. If you have a deficiency in this enzyme, then you can have a buildup of histamine. (8) Certain medications, digestive disorders, and foods may block proper function of DAO as well.

The Histamine Bucket

To better understand the effect of histamine in food, let’s use Dr. Joneja’s analogy of a bucket of water (2). Let’s compare histamine in our body to water in a bucket.

• We start with a little bit of water in the bucket because that’s the essential amount of histamine we need for our body to function properly.
• If you consume foods that are inflammatory for you, then that adds water (or histamine) to your bucket.
• If you have seasonal allergies, environmental allergies, or food intolerances, and you are exposed to the allergen (pollen, dander, plants, food, etc.), then you are producing more histamine and adding more water to that bucket.
• If you have a DAO enzyme deficiency, then your bucket will fill up that much faster because your body is not able to breakdown the excess histamine.
• If you consume a meal made of food that are rich in histamines (i.e. cheese, wine, avocados, strawberries, kimchi, etc.), then you continue to fill your bucket. If your histamine level was already high because of your allergies, then the bucket overflows, and that’s when symptoms appear.

The top of the bucket is a person’s tolerance level. Everyone’s tolerance will be different depending on the factors mentioned above. Please note that histamine levels in your body vary all the time because of what you are exposed to and what you eat. Therefore, during pollen allergy season, you may find yourself reacting to foods (usually high-histamine foods) that you would not normally react too. That’s because your bucket is already too full.

Where does histamine come from?

You either make it (intrinsic) or ingest it (extrinsic). (3)

Intrinsic sources:
1. Our body makes histamine naturally to perform certain essential functions in the body.
2. Intestinal bacteria can make it from undigested protein in the bowels.

Extrinsic sources:
1. Some foods naturally contain high levels of histamine, especially aged or fermented foods.
2. Certain manufactured foods also contain high levels of histamine because of the additives it contains.
3. Certain foods are histamine releasers. They encourage the release of histamine from mast cells in the body.
4. Certain foods block the activity of the DAO enzyme, therefore histamine will not be broken down efficiently.

Histamine in Your Food

Histamine is produced when bacteria or yeast converts histidine (an amino acid) into histamine (a neurotransmitter). (7) Since proteins are made up of amino acids, foods that contain protein can all make histamine under certain conditions. In general, aged and fermented foods will contain the highest levels of histamine. (13)

It is important to note that histamine levels in food will vary depending on how fresh it is, how it was transported, how it was stored, and how it was processed. (8, 14) For example, fresh fish that is gutted and frozen immediately after being caught will be low in histamine. If that same freshly caught fish is left un-gutted for a while, its histamine levels will automatically increase as bacteria multiplies in the gut and converts histidine found in the flesh of the fish into histamine.

Research on histamine content in foods is sparse and very variable because of the factors mentioned above. However, many authors (2, 4, 14)  agree on some of the basic ones. You can use our Histamine Food Chart for a more complete list of foods to avoid and foods that are safe to eat.

1. Histamine-rich foods: these included all fermented foods, aged foods, smoked foods, some ripened fruits and vegetables.
2. Foods with histamine releasing capacities: this includes many food additives as well as certain fruits and vegetables.
3. Foods that block the activity of the DAO enzyme: mostly alcohol, tea (black and green), and sports drinks.

For a more complete list, please use our Histamine Food Chart.

Food preparation and storage

When choosing meat and fish, always buy as fresh as possible and use immediately or freeze it until ready to use. If buying frozen fish, look for the label FAS (frozen-at-sea) (13). Freezing slows down or prevents the increase of histamine (10) in food so whatever you are not going to eat right now, freeze it. That includes leftovers or any cooked food.
The way you cook your food can also increase the levels of histamine. Frying and grilling foods increases histamine levels in foods (1), but boiling has little influence or can even decrease it.

Adopting a Low-Histamine Diet

If you have intense seasonal allergies, you may want to follow a low-histamine diet for a few weeks. This would alleviate the histamine burden on your body. It may be difficult to do on your own, so reach out to us if we can help with meal planning. If you would like to have more support, feel free to contact our naturopath Dr. Sofie or our nutritionist Helen. They will be happy to support you with your health goals. 

References:

1. Chung BY;Park SY;Byun YS;Son JH;Choi YW;Cho YS;Kim HO;Park CW; “Effect of Different Cooking Methods on Histamine Levels in Selected Foods.” Annals of Dermatology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29200758/ 

2. “Dr Janice Joneja Histamine Intolerance Interview Transcript.” Healing Histamine, 4 Apr. 2018, healinghistamine.com/dr-janice-joneja-histamine-intolerance-interview-transcript/

3. “FAQs and Fact Sheets: Histamine Intolerance.” Vickerstaff Health Services, allergynutrition.com/faqs-fact-sheets/.   

4. Food Intolerance Network. “Histamine Intolerance – The Food List.” Food Intolerance Network, food-intolerance-network.com/food-intolerances/histamine-intolerance/food-list-with-histamine-levels.html 

5. “Histamine.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Apr. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histamine

6. “Histamine: Definition, Effects & Role.” com, 13 October 2016, study.com/academy/lesson/histamine-definition-effects-role.html 

7. Landete, J.M., et al. “Biogenic Amine Production by Lactic Acid Bacteria, Acetic Bacteria and Yeast Isolated from Wine.” Food Control, Elsevier, 10 Jan. 2007, sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713507000059

8. Maintz, et al. “Histamine and Histamine Intolerance.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 May 2007, academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/85/5/1185/4633007

9. Obara, Ilona L., et al. “Histamine, Histamine Receptors and Neuropathic Pain Relief .” British Pharmacological Society | Journals, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 7 June 2019, bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bph.14696

10. P;, Rossano R;Mastrangelo L;Ungaro N;Riccio. “Influence of Storage Temperature and Freezing Time on Histamine Level in the European Anchovy Engraulis Encrasicholus (L., 1758): A Study by Capillary Electrophoresis.” Journal of Chromatography. B, Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16260192/

11. Pinzer, T C, et al. “Circadian Profiling Reveals Higher Histamine Plasma Levels and Lower Diamine Oxidase Serum Activities in 24% of Patients with Suspected Histamine Intolerance Compared to Food Allergy and Controls.” Allergy, John Wiley and Sons Inc., Apr. 2018, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5947167/

12. Prinz C;Zanner R;Gerhard M;Mahr S;Neumayer N;Höhne-Zell B;Gratzl M; “The Mechanism of Histamine Secretion From Gastric Enterochromaffin-Like Cells.” The American Journal of Physiology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10564076/

13. Richter, Amy. “Low Histamine Diet 101: What to Eat, What to Avoid, and Why.” Functional Nutrition Answers, 15 Dec. 2019, functionalnutritionanswers.com/low-histamine-diet-101-what-to-eat-what-to-avoid-and-why/

14. Vivienne, et al. “Histamine & Food: The Evidence.” Mast Cells & Collagen Behaving Badly, 31 Dec. 2018, mastcellblog.wordpress.com/food/evidence/